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What makes Judaism different?  And--because of the way we think
in a Western, sometimes-Christian-sometimes-secular culture--
what makes it sometimes more difficult to approach?  I'll take on
only a few of the most significant differences; I'm sure that
some readers will offer comments on various differences and
difficulties they have experienced.

"What's different about Jewish worship?"  First of all, the most
basic unit of Jewish prayer, the "berakha'(sometimes translated
as 'blessing' though not without problems as I'll comment later),
is a constant part of one's day.  Remember the line in "Fiddler
on the Roof" where the rabbi says:  "There is a blessing for
everything"?  Well, there is.  And the purpose of having a
blessing for everything is to constantly raise our consciousness
of God.  The form of the opening words of a berakha is itself
another message about the nature of God; we begin with "Barukh
Atah," "Praised are You,  Lord our God," with personal address to
the Creator.  Not "thee" or "thou" or something else conveying
distance, but "You."  But then we call God "Melekh ha-Olam,"
"King of the Universe," since God is not merely an intimate
friend and part of our personal affairs, but also a power beyond
comprehension.

There are berakhot (pl. of berakha) before eating different
foods.  "Praised are You...who brings forth bread from the
earth."  "Praised are You...by whose word all things exist."
"Praised are You...creator of the fruit of the tree."  There are
also longer berakhot to recite after eating.  There are berakhot
for the Sabbath and Festivals, such as when we light the candles:
"Praised are You...who has made us holy with His commandments and
commanded us to kindle the Sabbath lights."  "Praised are
You...who has kept us in life, and sustained us, and enabled us
to reach this time."  "Praised are You, who makes the Sabbath
holy."  There are berakhot not only for set times, such as in the
morning (1), but for extraordinary events such as seeing a
rainbow ("PraWhat makes Judaism different?  And--because of the way we think
in a Western, sometimes-Christian-sometimes-secular culture--
what makes it sometimes more difficult to approach?  I'll take on
only a few of the most significant differences; I'm sure that
some readers will offer comments on various differences and
difficulties they have experienced.

"What's different about Jewish worship?"  First of all, the most
basic unit of Jewish prayer, the "berakha'(sometimes translated
as 'blessing' though not without problems as I'll comment later),
is a constant part of one's day.  Remember the line in "Fiddler
on the Roof" where the rabbi says:  "There is a blessing for
everything"?  Well, there is.  And the purpose of having a
blessing for everything is to constantly raise our consciousness
of God.  The form of the opening words of a berakha is itself
another message about the nature of God; we begin with "Barukh
Atah," "Praised are You,  Lord our God," with personal address to
the Creator.  Not "theWhat makes Judaism different?  And--because of the way we think
in a Western, sometimes-Christian-sometimes-secular culture--
what makes it sometimes more difficult to approach?  I'll take on
only a few of the most significant differences; I'm sure that
some readers will offer comments on various differences and
difficulties they have experienced.

"What's different about Jewish worship?"  First of all, the most
basic unit of Jewish prayer, the "berakha'(sometimes translated
as 'blessing' though not without problems as I'll comment later),
is a constant part of one's day.  Remember the line in "Fiddler
on the Roof" where the rabbi says:  "There is a blessing for
everything"?  Well, there is.  And the purpose of having a
blessing for everything is to constantly raise our consciousness
of God.  The form of the opening words of a berakha is itself
another message about the nature of God; we begin with "Barukh
Atah," "Praised are You,  Lord our God," with personal address to
the Creator.  Not "theWhat makes Judaism different?  And--because of the way we think
in a Western, sometimes-Christian-sometimes-secular culture--
what makes it sometimes more difficult to approach?  I'll take on
only a few of the most significant differences; I'm sure that
some readers will offer comments on various differences and
difficulties they have experienced.

"What's different about Jewish worship?"  First of all, the most
basic unit of Jewish prayer, the "berakha'(sometimes translated
as 'blessing' though not without problems as I'll comment later),
is a constant part of one's day.  Remember the line in "Fiddler
on the Roof" where the rabbi says:  "There is a blessing for
everything"?  Well, there is.  And the purpose of having a
blessing for everything is to constantly raise our consciousness
of God.  The form of the opening words of a berakha is itself
another message about the nature of God; we begin with "Barukh
Atah," "Praised are You,  Lord our God," with personal address to
the Creator.  Not "thee" or "thou" or something else conveying
distance, but "You."  But then we call God "Melekh ha-Olam,"
"King of the Universe," since God is not merely an intimate
friend and part of our personal affairs, but also a power beyond
comprehension.

There are berakhot (pl. of berakha) before eating different
foods.  "Praised are You...who brings forth bread from the
earth."  "Praised are You...by whose word all things exist."
"Praised are You...creator of the fruit of the tree."  There are
also longer berakhot to recite after eating.  There are berakhot
for the Sabbath and Festivals, such as when we light the candles:
"Praised are You...who has made us holy with His commandments and
commanded us to kindle the Sabbath lights."  "Praised are
You...who has kept us in life, and sustained us, and enabled us
to reach this time."  "Praised are You, who makes the Sabbath
holy."  There are berakhot not only for set times, such as in the
morning (1), but for extraordinary events such as seeing a
rainbow ("Praised are You...who remembers His covenant, is
faithful to it and keeps His promise.") or seeing a head of state
(...who has given of His glory to flesh and blood."), and also
for seeing the sun rise (...Source of Creation.") or the ocean
("...who has made the great sea.")

Most berakhot do not need to be recited in the synagogue, or even
in public!  Jewish worship, far from being limited to the
synagogue, is ongoing and in many places, but primarily in one's
own home.  The home itself is intended to be a "mikdash me'at," a
mini-sanctuary; the table where we eat is considered holy, as if
it were an altar.

"Where does the synagogue fit in?"  Actually, that too was
modeled after the Temple; the daily prayers moved into the role
of the daily sacrifices offered when the Temple existed.  The
synagogue may have originated during the exile in Babylonia after
the first Temple was demolished, to bring the people together for
study and worship; some scholars have traced it even back to the
first Temple period.  But after the year 70, when the second
Temple was destroyed, the rabbis revolutionized Judaism,
eliminating any practical role for sacrifices and intensifying
the adaptation of Judaism for a future without a Temple and
without an independent Jewish state.  Thus "avodah," the Temple
worship, was changed into "avodah shebalev," the service of the
heart.

Public services were developed corresponding to the times when
some form of sacrifice had taken place.  There was a Shacharit, a
morning service; a Mincha, an afternoon service; a Ma'ariv,
evening prayer; and for major holidays and Rosh Chodesh(the New
Moon), a Musaf, additional service.  It is important to note,
however, that most of these services can be recited privately,
without the presence of a congregation; the tradition does place
a high value on prayer together with the community, but certainly
places a higher value on prayer itself.

The synagogue also became the place where the Torah was regularly
read to the community.  Over many centuries, the Torah was
divided into portions which could be digested each Sabbath
morning, so that it could be completed in a regular cycle.  Most
traditional congregations today follow the pattern of completing
the entire Torah of one year; many others complete the reading
every three years.  Special readings were also designated for
festival mornings.  During periods of persecution, when it was
forbidden to read the Torah publicly, segments from the Prophets
were substituted as reminders of the appropriate Torah portion,
and later these were maintained as a "haftarah" (concluding
reading).  Finally, a brief segment of the next week's portion of
the Torah is also read at weekday services on Monday and Thursday
mornings (also on Shabbat afternoon), so that no three days will
pass without some public reading from the Torah and a recognition
of its central place in Jewish life and ritual.

"How important is the Hebrew language?"  Since both the Tanakh
and the rabbinic tradition originated in Hebrew, it is only
natural that Jewish values are best expressed in Hebrew.  Thus,
traditional congregations maintain the fixed liturgy in Hebrew as
well.  I have already given a number of examples of words which
could not adequately be translated into English:  Torah, mitzvah,
halakha, and berakha.

In connection with this, one of my favorite stories was told to
me by Professor Avraham Holtz, who--together with Rabbi Yitz
Greenberg--was asked to spend a Shabbat at Seton Hall University,
a Catholic school, so that the faculty could experience a
traditional Jewish Shabbat and develop a deeper appreciation of
what that could mean.  (Only in America!)  When Rabbi Greenberg
recited the berakha over the bread, one of the nuns took the
loaves across the table, and, offering them to her guest, said:
"Here, Rabbi Holtz:  have a piece of the blessed bread."  Of
course, it is not the bread that is blessed; it is God who is
praised, and the term "blessing" is misleading, even if not
easily replaced.

Hebrew serves as a unifying force among Jews, particularly in
synagogue life.  Every Jew who knows at least a minimum of Hebrew
can follow and participate in the synagogue service and the home
rituals, whether in Tel Aviv or Moscow, Kansas City or Paris.
And some have suggested that cutting the bond with the Hebrew
language has been the final act preceding the disappearance of
Jewish communities.  Indeed, it was over this issue that a
traditional Jew, Zachariah Frankel, split from the German Reform
movement in mid-19th century, and began the process which led to
the creation of the Conservative movement.  For though prayer is
acceptable in any language, and indeed certain prayers ought to
be recited in one's own language, Frankel understood the role
that Hebrew plays within Jewish life.  (Of course, most of the
Reform movement has swung back towards a greater emphasis on
Hebrew...but that is an issue for another course!)

"But what if I don't know Hebrew?"  If you want to be comfortable
in synagogue life and even in traditional home rituals, you
should study it!  Meanwhile, by all means, pray in your own
native tongue...but don't expect the community to change its
norm.  This is one area where those who want to participate more
in Jewish life will have to raise their own standard.  Of course,
you should utilize the translations (I recommend minimal reliance
on transliterations, which tend to become a crutch) which will
help make the Hebrew gradually more intelligible as you go
forward.  And one other thing should be clear:  there is
significance to the *mood* of prayer, and not just to the words.
As you learn the Hebrew, and acquire a better understanding of
the prayer book, remember that meditation, silence, and the
spirit lie behind those words.  Don't assume that those who
'know' the Hebrew and can rattle through the prayers like Evelyn
Woods graduates, have it made.  None of us do, when we stand
before God.

*****************************************************************

"What does Judaism say about the human being?"  We are created
"b'tzelem Elohim," in the image of God, with characteristics of
the animals and Divine qualities as well.  And we are each one
person, body and soul together.  The Greek notion of the human
being was that of a good soul imprisoned in a flesh that was
evil.  The Jewish idea emphasizes the unity of the individual,
that both our animal side ("yetzer ha-ra," evil inclination) and
our holy qualities are combined, all serving a purpose:

     "It was very good." (Gen. 1:31) Rabbi Nachman the son of
Samuel said:  (What was so *very* good?) It is the evil
inclination.  But is it truly good?  Yes, for if it were not for
the evil inclination, man would not build a house, or take a
wife, or beget a child, or engage in business...
               ---Midrash Bereshit Rabba 9:7

     The function of man is to know the acts of God.  The
starting point is God, not man...(in creation) two principles
find expression:  that of human unity and that of the individual
worth of each man. (2)

Everything depends on how the body is employed; it can become
holy in service of sacred, or contemptible in service of the
profane.  There is always a tension between greatness and
nothingness in human beings.  We are not to be carried away with
our enormous potential; the Sages ask:  Why was man created last?
They answer: (1) So no one could consider him a partner in work
of creation, and (2) if he becomes overweening, he can be told:
a gnat preceded you.  But the mystical tradition suggests that
greatness is always possible:

     Happy is the person who lets God dwell in every single limb
of one's body, making oneself a dwelling place for the divine,
and making God King over each limb, so that no part of the body
is devoid of God.
               ---Tikkunei ha-Zohar, #70, p. 141b

Or as Rabbi Byron Sherwin has put it, "Through moral virtue and
observance of the mitzvot, one provides a means for each limb of
the body to articulate the soul, to make manifest the spiritual
through the physical." (3) Every human action is a way to serve
God:  eating (as per berakhot above), sexuality, even the way in
which we rest from work.

There are constant opportunities for encounter with God, and thus
for the elevation of the human being:

          We ask:  What is man?  Yet the true question should be:
Who is man?  As a thing man is explicable; as a person he is both
a mystery and a surprise.  As a thing he is finite; as a person
he is inexhaustible..."Man is obliged to say:  It is for my sake
that the world was created"(Sanhedrin 37a).  There is a task that
only I...can carry out, a task so great that its fulfillment may
epitomize the meaning of all humanity.
          ---A.J. Heschel, "Who is man?," p. 28, 36

     From the perspective of the Bible:
     Who is man?  A being in travail with God's dreams and
designs, with God's dream of a world redeemed, of reconciliation
of heaven and earth, of a mankind which is truly His image,
reflecting His wisdom, justice, and compassion.  God's dream is
not to be alone, to have mankind as a partner in the drama of
continuous creation.  By whatever we do, by every act we carry
out, we either advance or obstruct the drama of redemption; we
either reduce or enhance the power of evil.
          ---Ibid, p. 119 (conclusion)

"Does God predetermine our character?"  Whether the person is to
be righteous or wicked, God does not predetermine; this He leaves
solely to us.  I touched on this briefly in the first module.
Much is of course determined:  environment, temperament, our
physical bodies.  But we can choose how we respond to all those.
We can do much evil, but we are not doomed to do evil.

Judaism emphasizes the concepts of "chet" (sin) and "teshuvah"
(returning, or repentance).  "Chet" is borrowed from the language
of archery; it implies that we have somehow missed the mark, and
need to try again.  Because "teshuvah" implies that we are
returning to the way things should be--to a "right" relationship
with God, if there could ever be such a link so perfect!--it
suggests that for most of us there is always the possibility for
change and for "turning" away from sin.

"Rabbi, where will I go when I die?"  My teacher, Rabbi Jack
Segal of Houston, used to answer this question:  When you die,
you will go...to Levy's Funeral Home.  That's where what's left
of the physical body heads, as we prepare for the natural
decomposition of what used to be:  dust to dust, ashes to ashes.
But Judaism has also contended that death is not the end of life;
that the body and soul which were one now part company, and the
spirit continues to have a lasting effect, here and elsewhere.
This is so pivotal a concept in Judaism, that we include it in
every Amidah (the prayer recited silently while "standing", the
meaning of the word Amidah) three times daily, praising God who
is "mechayei ha-metim," who gives life to the dead.  (Full
disclosure:  many non-traditional Jews replace this with other
wording, such as "mechayei ha-kol," who gives life to all,
avoiding a commitment to faith in life after death or
resurrection.)  Yet what matters most--for virtually all Jews--is
not what is coming afterwards, but what is happening here.  The
object of this life is not to get into a better suite in the next
one; it is simply to make this life the best we can make it.

*****************************************************************

Since we live in a culture where religion and religious
discussion are most often associated with Christianity, it should
be helpful to compare the teachings of Judaism and Christianity
on a number of significant issues.  Unfortunately, it was not
fully possible to do this in an "open forum" until relatively
recently, due to the long history of distrust between the two
faiths and the terrible stereotypes of Jews which were created.
The Church taught very early on that Jews were exiled because God
desired them to wander and be strangers everywhere until the
second coming; thus their status and life-style were crucial
issues within the medieval Christian states.  They taught that
since some Jews had aided in the murder of Jesus--a matter open
to dispute, to say the least--all Jews were therefore forever
guilty.  And Jews were regarded as saboteurs, accused of
poisoning the wells of Christians, of desecrating the Host
(torturing Jesus through the wafer which represented his body),
and of the "blood libel"--of killing Christian children prior to
Passover and using their blood in the making of matzah.  Absurd
as these charges seem today, they were widely believed even into
the twentieth century.

One of the great blessings of "separation of church and state" is
the ability to communicate openly and respectfully about
religious differences, without fear of retaliation.  (Of course,
some Christians may wish to respond to my expression of these
differences:  they should feel free to do so, but please, no
flaming... :-) It should also be understood that it is difficult
to generalize about "Christianity", where there are significant
differences between Protestant sects--leaving out Catholics and
Greek Orthodox--between fundamentalists and non-fundamentalists,
evangelicals and non-evangelicals, etc., so if what I write here
is too sweeping and over-inclusive, so be it.)

One difference, of course, has to do with what I discussed above:
the afterlife and what Christians call "salvation."  Many
Christians believe that some brand of Christian faith is
essential for this.  Judaism teaches just the opposite.  Even
setting aside the primary emphasis on this world, the teaching
that "The righteous of all nations have a share in the world to
come" is accepted; Jews have no monopoly on the afterlife or any
part of it, whatever that may be.

"What is the role of Jewish law in Christianity?"  There is
actually ample evidence that early Christianity did not intend to
do away with Jewish practice; the Gospel of Matthew ch. 5, for
instance, has Jesus say:  "Do not imagine I have come to abolish
the Torah or Prophets."  The Book of Acts depicts the disciples
as praying in the Temple, shows Peter observing the Jewish
dietary laws, and supporting the idea that Christianity
originally was a supplement to, not a replacement for Judaism.
Apparently, Paul changed all of this, in order to emphasize the
preeminence of faith over deeds...or, perhaps, simply to make it
more simple for the new faith to win converts.  After all,
baptism was much easier than circumcision!

"How do Jews view Jesus?"  As a person, like any other.  Isaiah
40:25 suggests:  "To whom will you liken Me?"  Jews do not
conceive of God as having any physical body, nor of any physical
creature as being Divine.  Therefore, there can be no special
label for Jesus.  To discuss the positive qualities of Jesus'
message is feasible, but irrelevant to the main claims of
Christianity, that Jesus was the son of God, the Messiah, who
rose from the dead on the third day, etc.  It is out of timidity
that some Jews try to make a special place for Jesus in
discussion with Christians; I think it rather disrespectful
(though well-intentioned perhaps) to describe Jesus as a "great
moral leader" or a "prophet", as if comparing Jesus to Martin
Luther King Jr. or Isaiah had anything to do with what
Christianity claims.  It is of course another thing entirely for
a Jew to believe that God indeed "called" Jesus and his followers
to bring another brand of ethical monotheism into the world, but
we would likely say that about Mohammed and other great religious
figures as well.

By the way, it should be obvious that within this definition,
there can be no such thing as a "Jew for Jesus," any more than
there can be a vegetarian for steak.  If one claims to believe
that Jesus is the Messiah, that person clearly is a Christian,
not a Jew.  Claims that such a faith represents something on the
order of "completed Judaism" are offensive to Jews, and to a
great many Christians as well.

"How important are miracles in the two faiths?"  Judaism does not
place much emphasis on the supernatural, as noted in the story
from the Talmud about Rabbi Eliezer in the first module.  Some
authorities have attempted to explain many of the Biblical
miracles as natural events (e.g., the crossing of the Sea out of
Egypt); others suggest that they were part of the prophetic
visions but not "physical" events.  As may be clear from the
second module, there are many devoted and observant Jews today
who would deny that any supernatural event took place on Mount
Sinai!

The same could hardly be said of Christianity.  Paul said:  "If
Christ is not risen, our preaching is in vain." (I Corinthians
15:14)  The significance of the miracles of and for Jesus--the
virgin birth, the changing of water into wine, etc.--are much
greater, since the faith depends so much on the life and actions
of this one individual.

"What does Judaism say about sex?"  Sex, within prescribed
limits, is a positive.  In fact, abstinence from permitted
pleasure is regarded as improper!  In Biblical times, there were
Nazirites, those who took on vows and restricted themselves from
certain pleasurable experiences for a specified period.  When
they concluded that period, they were instructed to bring a
sin-offering to the Temple...perhaps because there was something
questionable about such ascetic practices!  In Judaism, it is
considered normative to marry and to have children. (4)
Procreation is not only a positive, it is seen as an act of
partnership with God, as a means of enhancing, as it were, the
divine image. (5)

Early Christianity, (and much of the Catholic Church even today!)
considered marriage a necessary evil, and celibacy where possible
as the ideal, as Paul wrote:  "...if they cannot control
themselves, let them marry.  For it is better to marry than to be
on fire with passion." (I Corinthians 7:9) While there are vast
areas of difference among Christians on this subject, Judaism
remains extremely clear.

"How do we deal with those who are evil, who may seek to do us
harm?"  The Sermon on the Mount says:  love your enemies, turn
the other cheek.  Judaism clearly says that you must treat your
enemy as a human being wherever possible; "When you encounter
your enemy's ox or ass wandering, you must take it back to him.
When you see the ass of your enemy lying under its burden and
would refrain from raising it, you must nevertheless raise it
with him," (Ex. 23:4f.) that is, you must assist him.  "If your
enemy is hungry, give him bread to eat." (Prov. 25:21) But
nowhere does Judaism suggest that one should "turn the other
cheek" to your enemy.  More fundamental is the Talmudic teaching:
"If someone comes to kill you, rise earlier and kill him first."
(Sanhedrin 72a)  And you are not obligated to forgive those who
wrong you, unless they (a) make restitution for any loss suffered
as a result of their actions, and (b) actually ask for
forgiveness, indicating that they are truly repentant for what
they have done.  This is part of why Jews find it so important to
remember the Holocaust as well as its lessons, and why Jews will
generally support prosecution of war criminals even fifty years
after the actions took place.

In spite of the many sharp distinctions between Judaism and
Christianity, it should be clear that Judaism ought to look
favorably on Christianity, in view of the commitments it shares
with Judaism:  to bring more compassion, more justice, and more
ethical behavior into the world.  To the extent Christianity
inspires these actions, Judaism is pro-Christian.


*****************************************************************

(1)  As you can find in the opening section of the morning
service in any traditional prayer book; see e.g. Siddur Sim
Shalom, pages 6-10.

(2)  "The Sages," M.M. Urbach, p. 217. Similarly Mishnah
Sanhedrin 4:5, which teaches that the seal of the Holy One on His
creatures is always different; unlike the seal of coins, which
are all identical.

(3)  "Toward a Jewish Theology," p. 136f.

(4)  While traditional Judaism accepts every Jew as a valid and
valued member of the community, it does not accept certain forms
of sexual behavior as consistent with the Jewish ideal.  Thus,
for instance, homosexual behavior, even when monogamous, is
considered incompatible with halakha.  Needless to say, this is
an issue vigorously disputed within the Jewish community today,
and the more liberal forms of Judaism are generally accepting of
homosexual relationships.

(5)  On the role of this in the mystical tradition, see for
instance, "The Wisdom of the Zohar," I. Tishby, v. 3, pp. 1360f.:
"Since man is made in the image of God he has an obligation 'to
multiply the likeness of the supernal King in the world' through
procreation."

*****************************************************************

Suggested readings:

Telushkin, Joseph; "Jewish Literacy," pp. 126-133; 189-200;
204-206; 259-260; 461-474; 545-558, Morrow & Co.

Telushkin, Joseph; "Jewish Wisdom," most of sections 11-41,
Morrow & Co.

Kushner, Harold; "To Life!  A Celebration of Jewish Being and
Thinking," chapter 11, Warner Books (paperback).

On berakhot:  "And You Shall be a Blessing," by Joel Grishaver,
Aronson, a wonderful study of what and how a berakha means.

On prayer in general:  "Entering Jewish Prayer," by Reuven
Hammer, Schocken Books; "To Pray as a Jew," by Hayim Donin, Basic
Books.

There are many different aids to learning Hebrew (although local
courses available are almost always best), including textbooks,
tapes, and computer software programs.

On the role of the human being:  "Who is Man?,"  by Abraham J.
Heschel; "Jewish Personal and Social Ethics," by Louis Jacobs,
Behrman House.

On Judaism and Christianity:  "Judaism and Christianity:  the
Differences," by Trude Weiss-Rosmarin, Jonathan David Publ.;
relevant sections of "Nine Questions People Ask About Judaism,"
by Dennis Prager and Joseph Telushkin.